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SDFSC Announcement 2001

Promising Programs

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Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT)

Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT) is a universal prevention program that targets for change those child and parent behaviors thought to be most relevant to the development of adolescent delinquent, violent, and related behaviors. Specifically addressed are child oppositional, defiant, and socially inept behaviors and parent discipline and monitoring. The three major components of the program are classroom-based child social and problem-solving skills training; playground-based behavior modification; and group-delivered parent training. The program is designed for delivery to first grade and fifth grade children and their parents.

LIFT interventions target both children and parents in order to impact child problem behaviors and parent discipline and monitoring. Elementary school is the first point in the life-span when the majority of children enter a service system that includes a broad cross-section of the population, and is therefore the ideal setting for providing a population-level intervention relevant to children.

Classroom activities, sometimes in the form of playground activities, occur for one hour, twice a week for ten weeks. Parent training occurs after school or in the evenings at the school. Sessions last two hours and occur once per week for six weeks. The entire cycle of program components takes ten weeks, but communication is fostered throughout the school year. Curricula, instructions to trainers, videotapes, and handouts are available for classroom and parent components.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. Training in leading the parent training and the classroom components ranges from 15 to 30 hours, depending on past experience. Training of playground personnel can be accomplished in five hours. The major costs for the program can be subsumed within the regular budget of an on-staff school psychologist who is engaged in social skills and parent training. A half-time position dedicated to LIFT activities is more than sufficient for a broad-based program delivery. Additional costs for LIFT include initial training costs, home visits, child care during parent training, compensation for playground monitors (if necessary), and manuals and videotapes. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. LIFT addresses known risk factor behaviors through carefully thought out processes. Reviewers found the program's goal clearly stated and highlighted the program's

identification of the elementary-school years as the important time to address the development of these behaviors. Reviewers found the literature background provided to be based on a sound theoretical framework. Targeting the three domains of self, family, and school was also found

by reviewers to be an effective way to increase protective factors. The parent component was effectively informed by the parents' identification of behaviors they would like addressed, thus initiating buy-in for the parents.

Evidence of Efficacy. Reviewers found the LIFT evaluation to be an excellent example of a rigorous, randomized design with multiple sources of confirmatory data. They concluded that the program demonstrated important effects on outcome variables, despite concerns about attrition rates, the lack of reporting of levels of significance in some cases, small effect sizes on some outcomes, and questions about how the program fits into the schools. The evaluation study was a randomized controlled trial of 12 randomly chosen elementary schools located in neighborhoods "at risk" for delinquency. The LIFT group comprised all first or fifth grade students in six randomly chosen elementary schools. The control group consisted of all first or fifth grade students in six randomly chosen elementary schools. Assessment measures included micro-analytic observations on the playground, with observers blind to group status; micro-analytic observations of family interaction in the laboratory or home setting; a social competence and school adjustment scale; teacher questionnaire; child behavior checklist; official police records; and a child interview.

The program reported small to large effect sizes showing that immediately after the intervention, LIFT students in Grades 1 and 5 decreased their physical aggression towards classmates on the school playground, and mothers of LIFT students in Grades 1 and 5 decreased their negative verbal comments to their children. A small effect size was reported showing that LIFT students in Grades 1 and 5 were perceived by teachers as demonstrating more positive social behaviors to other students within the classroom setting one year after the intervention. During the three-year period following the intervention, LIFT students in Grade 1 were statistically significantly less likely to show an increase in the severity of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptomatology as perceived by teachers. The program also used odds ratios to demonstrate that LIFT students in Grade 5 were less likely to be reported by teachers as associating with peers with behavior problems, to be arrested by police, and to report patterned alcohol use or marijuana use during the three year period after the intervention.

For Further Information Contact:
J. Mark Eddy, Oregon Social Learning Center
160 East 4(superscript: th) Avenue, Eugene, OR 97401
Telephone: (541) 485-2711 Fax: (541) 485-7087
E-mail: marke@oslc.org
Web site: http://www.oslc.org

Lion's-Quest Skills for Adolescence

Lion's-Quest Skills for Adolescence is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. Lion's-Quest Skills for Adolescence is a comprehensive youth development program that brings together educators, parents, and members of the community to support the development of life and citizenship skills in young adolescents in Grades 6-8. The program comprises five key components that address different aspects of young people's lives: (1) school curriculum; (2) parent involvement; (3) positive school climate; (4) community involvement; and (5) school staff training and follow-up support. The program is school-based and intended for use in a variety of school settings with youth of diverse ethnicity and socioeconomic status.

Skills for Adolescence is based on the rationale that a nurturing environment in which young people can learn critical life skills supports the development of positive behaviors and reduces the risk for problem behaviors, such as violence and substance abuse.

The classroom curriculum consists of 103 skill-building sessions that are offered in 12 configurations and formats, from a minimum implementation model of a nine-week, 40-session mini-course to a maximum implementation model of a multi-year program with all 103 sessions expanded to 160 class periods. The 45-minute sessions are recommended for delivery no less than every other day during the duration of one of the implementation models. Materials for the program include: Skills for Adolescence Teachers' Resource Guide; Changes and Challenges Student Book; The Surprising Years Parent Book; and Supporting Young Adolescents Parent Meeting Guide. A program evaluation kit provides strategies and tools for conducting a needs assessment and assessing positive youth development.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. To ensure successful implementation of Skills for Adolescence, participation in either the two- or three-day staff development workshop is required for those teaching the program. Follow-up professional development opportunities are offered in the form of workshops that teach "best practices" for instruction in life skills. An extensive, ten-day training of trainers program prepares local personnel to conduct their own staff development. Toll-free telephone technical support is also available through the developer. In the first year, the cost for Skills for Adolescence is $435 per teacher, including a two-day pre-service workshop, a grade-specific curriculum set, and student materials for a class of 25. After the first year, the costs are only for additional student materials at a rate of $5.76 per student. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. Reviewers rated this program highly for its clear goals and strong rationale. They also noted that the skill building activities in the program tie to research and clearly contribute to the attainment of the stated goals. According to reviewers, program content and examples take into consideration the diverse needs of students, and content delivery takes into account multiple learning styles.

Evidence of Efficacy. Reviewers agreed that the Skills for Adolescence program reported relevant evidence of efficacy based on a methodologically sound evaluation. They noted that the program used an evaluation design that controlled for pre-test differences and reliable and valid outcome measures. The program presented evidence from two studies.

The first study was a quasi-experimental pre-post comparison group design, using a convenience sample with random selection of sixth through eighth grade classrooms to the comparison group based on teacher judgements of comparability with students in the treatment classrooms. The treatment group consisted of 583 students in 12 schools throughout the country and the comparison group consisted of 299 students from the same 12 schools. Statistically significant results were demonstrated in favor of the treatment students on drug use survey and knowledge test measures, including higher level of perceived risk or harm to student's health for all substances; lower rates of beer, liquor, and chewing tobacco use; and lower rates of intent to use beer and liquor in the future.

The second study used a quasi-experimental pre-post comparison group design with the experimental group receiving the program integrated into language arts or social studies classes and the comparison group receiving traditional coursework in the subjects. During the 1993-94 school year, 12 inner-city middle schools provided equivalent research condition classrooms of seventh graders, with principals' random assignment of teachers to research groups. In the 1994-95 school year, eighth graders in 14 inner-city middle schools participated in the study. Year one findings included statistically significant gains in knowledge and attitudes about ways to deal with peer conflicts and increases in grade-point averages in favor of the experimental group. Year two findings yielded statistically significant results including reductions in misconduct and gains in knowledge of anger management in favor of the experimental group. Follow-up results included statistically significant program effects related to maintenance of the suppression of misconduct and knowledge of how to manage peer conflicts.

For Further Information Contact:
1984 Coffman Rd., Newark, OH 43055
Telephone: (740) 522-6400 Fax: (740) 522-6580
E-mail: gregl@quest.edu
Web site: http://www.quest.edu

Lions-Quest Working Toward Peace

Lions-Quest Working Toward Peace is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. Lions-Quest Working Toward Peace (WTP) is a school-based, comprehensive program designed to teach and reinforce a repertoire of anger management and conflict resolution skills. It brings together the school, the family, peers, community, and the media in a network of support to teach and reinforce anger and conflict management skills. It is specifically designed to address the developmental needs of young adolescents ages 10-14. The major goals of the program are to help students understand the value of peaceful conflict resolution; to study peaceful role models; and to learn ways to manage anger and resolve conflicts peacefully.

The rationale for this program integrates a variety of approaches, primarily incorporating the social learning theory of Bandura, et. al., and the information-rational model of Ajzen and Fishbein, et. al.

Five key components comprise the program: curriculum for classroom; planning guide for safe schools; parent involvement; community involvement; and professional development for implementers. The curriculum is composed of 22 core sessions and a Skills Bank with six basic life-skills sessions. Multi-disciplinary extensions are provided to link sessions with other related content areas that include art, computer technology, drama, health, language arts, math, music, physical education, science, and social studies. The program is structured to change attitudes about how to interact with others; increase students' knowledge about non-violent techniques; and foster the behaviors that will help young people apply this knowledge. WTP may be implemented as a five-week course taught every day or as a nine-week course taught every other day. Each session lasts 40 to 50 minutes long. A Safe School Planning Guide for School Communities and a Working Toward Peace Family Resource Pamphlet are also part of the program.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. To ensure the successful implementation of WTP, each implementer should attend a one-day workshop. The first year's cost for the program is $89.95 per teacher, including the one-day training, a curriculum set, and student materials for a class of 25. Additional student materials are available for $3.95 per student. Family Resource Pamphlets cost $1.25 each. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. Reviewers found the goals for this program explicitly described and able to encompass appropriate changes in behavior expected by the program. The program was found to support its goals with a prevention literature rationale that establishes a framework for the content and processes used in the program. Reviewers noted that the program links the goals and activities to a clear framework primarily built on the fundamental principles of social learning theory.

Evidence of Efficacy. The evaluation of the program included random assignment to one of three conditions, i.e., Working Toward Peace (WTP), Skills for Adolescence (SFA), or control, in a pre-post test design, with a multiple post-test in the second year of the evaluation. The evaluation design was replicated in two separate years, and reviewers reported that the second year had the stronger design. Second year results yielded positive short-term effects in the reduction of misconduct and suspensions for the WTP treatment group. Reviewers concluded that the program provided sufficient evidence of reduction in violent acts and student misconduct, although attrition issues were raised.

The second year of the evaluation study included 12 to 14 middle schools with 163 students in the WTP group, 151 in the SFA group, and 176 students in the control group. Data related to risk and protective factors were collected using the 25-item Anger Management Knowledge Test and teacher reports of student behaviors, such as misconduct and suspensions for fighting. Statistically significant results in favor of the WTP group were found in the second year of the evaluation and included the following outcomes: a) increases in knowledge about anger management and conflict resolution; b) decline in violent acts; c) decrease in misconduct events among students; d) decrease in aggressive misconduct events; e) increases in pro-social behavior; f) reduction in misconduct violations in classrooms taught by high-fidelity teachers; and g) retention of knowledge of how to deal with anger and resolve disputes.

For Further Information Contact:
1984 Coffmann Rd., Newark, OH 43055
Telephone: (740) 522-6400 Fax: (740) 522-6580
Email: gregl@quest.edu
Web site: http://www.quest.edu

Michigan Model for Comprehensive School Health Education

Michigan Model for Comprehensive School Health Education is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. The Michigan Model for Comprehensive School Health Education (Michigan Model) brings together an array of national, state, and private resources to promote comprehensive school health. The program addresses kindergarten through twelfth grade students and is designed for implementation as part of the core school curriculum. The goals of the program are to bring a single focus for school-based youth prevention programs; provide common language and approaches for parent, community, and student health programs; and reinforce prevention messages from a variety of levels.

Michigan Model is based on the traditional ten health content areas that were established by the Michigan Department of Education and have been used for decades as the outline for school health programs across the country. These areas include Safety and First Aid Education, Nutrition Education, Family Health, Consumer Health, Community Health, Growth and Development, Substance Use and Abuse, Personal Health Practices, Emotional and Mental Health, and Disease Prevention and Control. The original content was established by merging three validated school health programs and taking the best from 50 component programs. The curriculum developers drew heavily on the Health Belief Model and Social Inoculation Theory.

The model contains an average of 40 classroom instructional lessons per year with each lesson lasting approximately 30 to 45 minutes depending on grade level. The educational materials include lessons that incorporate knowledge, attitude, and skills-based instruction. Michigan Model's comprehensive health approach emphasizes a building block format that introduces, fully develops, and then reinforces key health promotion and prevention messages over a period of years. Parent/family involvement pieces are also included as part of student instruction in key content areas.

The program is a hands-on and materials-intensive program. Curriculum manuals are provided and a series of curriculum content maps have been developed to show how key health concepts like substance abuse, safety and personal health practices are integrated throughout the curriculum.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. Michigan Model is a skills-based curriculum that requires extensive training of many staff. Teacher training is conducted regionally through a network of 26 Michigan sites and nationally through certified trainers. A paper has been developed to assist schools in understanding the connection between health and learning. Schools may choose from among a variety of training options but must meet a minimum requirement of three days of training in specified content and skills areas. A five-day training of trainers is offered on an as needed basis. Training costs are $250 for Grades K-6 and $150 for Grades 7-12. These costs include all instructional manuals and training support materials. Costs of travel and accommodations are not included. The average cost per instructor manual is $35 for Grades K-6 and $20 for Grades 7-12. The average cost per classroom is $450. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. This program has clear goals related to substance abuse and violence prevention. Reviewers noted that the comprehensive program identifies clear attitudinal and behavioral changes expected with quantifiable outcomes over each year of the program. The rationale for the program was found by reviewers to be clearly stated. The content and processes were also clearly aligned.

Evidence of Efficacy. The program used a longitudinal pre-post test, comparison group design with a self-administered survey instrument. Random assignment to equal-size experimental and control groups was sought but not achieved in every district. Data were analyzed for 1911 treatment and comparison group students in Grades 5-8. Reviewers found that the program used a strong evaluation design, a survey instrument with good reliability for some measures, and appropriate analytic techniques. They noted that the program discussed and accounted for attrition effects. Reviewers agreed that all results favored the program group, although not all findings were statistically significant for all cohorts. All cohorts had at least one significant positive outcome, with the sixth and seventh grade cohort demonstrating the largest effects. Many of the statistically significant positive outcomes were shown at the second post-test (which was administered more than one year post-baseline).

Evaluation results, based on 442 treatment and comparison students in Grades 6 and 7, demonstrated that students participating in the program for two years had a frequency of use of all substances (e.g., alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine, and other drugs), with the exception of smokeless tobacco, statistically significantly smaller in increase than comparison students. At the end of seventh grade, program students' rates of substance use had increased less and knowledge of alcohol pressures, effects, and skills to resist had increased more, to a statistically significant degree, than those of the comparison students.

For Further Information Contact:
3423 N. Martin Luther King Blvd., Lansing, MI 48909
Telephone: (517) 335-8390 Fax: (517) 335-8391
E-mail: sweeneyd@STATE.MI.US
Web site: http://www.emc.cmich.edu



Minnesota Smoking Prevention Program

The Minnesota Smoking Prevention Program is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. The Minnesota Smoking Prevention Program (MSPP) is a school-based curriculum designed for students ages 11 to 15. The goals of the program are to prevent students from beginning to use tobacco; to help students stop using tobacco if they have experimented with it; and to help students influence friends and family members not to use tobacco. MSPP is specifically designed to help adolescents in five ways: (1) identify reasons why people start using tobacco; (2) discover that non-use of tobacco is normative behavior; (3) practice skills for resisting peer pressure to use tobacco; (4) recognize covert messages in tobacco advertising; and (5) determine their own personal reasons for not using tobacco. Peer leaders are an essential component of the MSPP program, with students leading many of the activities throughout the six-session curriculum.

MSPP is based on a social influences model. This theory focuses on those social and psychological factors that have been shown to promote the onset of tobacco use. MSPP program activities are designed to address the following social and psychological factors: peer pressure, advertising, and a lack of behavioral skills with which to resist these influences. The rationale behind conducting a smoking prevention program with students in this age group stems from the knowledge that it is best to initiate primary prevention strategies before students start smoking. The rationale behind using peer leaders to lead the group activities is based on the theory that peer influence is the single most important factor in determining when and how cigarettes are first tried.

MSPP consists of six developmentally appropriate classroom sessions. Educational strategies used include cooperative learning groups, large group discussions, interviews, role play, media use, report writing, and goal setting. Each session is forty-five to fifty minutes in length, fitting well into a normal class period. A typical lesson may include activities such as participating in a small peer-led group discussion, analyzing mock social situations and identifying influences to use tobacco, practicing resistance skills, role playing, creating anti-tobacco advertisements, and making personal public commitments to establish students' intention not to use. A facilitator's manual includes detailed instructions for each session. Transparencies and handouts are included. Peer leaders undergo a 30-minute training session conducted by the teacher with little preparation needed. The Group Leader guide for the student peer leaders is written specifically for the students and is geared to make their experience successful.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. A one-day teacher training session is available for $1,750 plus expenses. Program cost for an MSPP kit is $136.95. Kits include a Facilitator's Guide, poster, five group leader workbooks, one set of 120 student handouts, one set of five group leader certificates, and one set of student certificates. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. According to reviewers, the goals of this program are explicit and clear. Additionally, the goals and objectives were rated highly for content appropriateness for the specified age level of participants. The social influences model that underpins the program's rationale was found to be sound and focused.

Evidence of Efficacy. The evaluation of the Minnesota Smoking Prevention Program used a longitudinal, pre-post, intervention versus reference community design, in which the two communities were matched for size, socioeconomic make-up, and distance from the base of the program. Sixth graders in both groups completed a baseline survey in spring 1983 and were surveyed each spring until they graduated from high school in 1989. The self-report survey measured tobacco use, e.g., history and intensity. Reviewers reported that the documentation of long-term program effects on smoking is clearly evident in the evaluation data presented by the program. They found that the measures of smoking were both reliable and valid and that the quasi-experimental design was bolstered by the pre-test equivalence procedures and appropriate statistical analysis employed in the overall evaluation.

Results demonstrated to a statistically significant degree that smoking rates among students in the intervention community were significantly lower following participation in the program. At the end of 10(superscript: th) grade, 13.1% of students in the intervention community were current smokers as compared to 22.7% of reference students; and at the end of 12(superscript: th) grade, weekly smoking was 14.6% in the invention community as compared to 24.1% in the reference community.

For Further Information Contact:
15251 Pleasant Valley Road, P. O. Box 176, Center City, MN 55012
Telephone: (800) 328-9000, ext. 4030 Fax: (651) 213-4577
E-mail: astanding@hazelden.org
Web site: http://hazelden.org

Open Circle Curriculum

Open Circle Curriculum is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. The Open Circle Curriculum is the classroom component of the Reach Out to Schools: Social Competency Program. It is a grade-differentiated, multi-year, social and emotional learning curriculum targeting elementary school students. This curriculum focuses on three areas: communication, self-control, and social problem-solving. The program has three goals: to strengthen participating students' social competency skills in communication, self-control, and interpersonal problem-solving; to promote the creation of growth-fostering relationships among participating students and between these students and the adults in their lives; and to build a sense of community in classrooms and schools by providing a common "language" that fosters communication among students and between students and their teachers.

The design and methodology of the Open Circle Curriculum were informed by research on social competency skills development. A number of recent studies have shown that students participating in social competency programs exhibit a reduced incidence of violence and other risk behaviors.

In biweekly lessons lasting 15 to 30 minutes, teachers conduct "Open Circles" with their students. These meetings, the setting for curriculum lessons, serve as a forum for providing students with opportunities to develop and practice their social competency skills, for building positive relationships among students and teachers, and for creating a strong sense of community in the classroom. During these meetings, topics such as being a good listener, including one another, speaking up, calming down, or problem solving are discussed and followed by an activity, a role-play, or a game that reinforces the topic. Students are also asked to identify and resolve conflicts. The structure of the lessons provides a place for troubled or excluded children to feel more connected to their classmates and teachers, and therefore less alone to face their problems. This process creates a safer, more inclusive classroom and school community.

An Open Circle Curriculum guide is available for each grade level from Kindergarten through Grade 5. The same concepts and skills are included in all six, grade levels in a developmentally appropriate way.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. In order to receive the curriculum, teachers must participate in a year-long teacher training, which includes two consecutive days of training in the summer or early fall, one day in January or February, and one day in March or April. A school's cost per teacher for participation in the training activities is $750. Including the cost for substitute teachers, the overall cost per student in a typical class of 20 is about $50. As a trained teacher continues in subsequent years to implement the curriculum with new classes, the cost per student is reduced. In addition to the required training days, in-school consulting and coaching are provided by Program staff. Additional training for administrators, staff, and parents is also available. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. According to reviewers, the program goals are closely aligned with the protective factor of developing social competency skills. Reviewers found that the curriculum meets the program's goals since it attends to fostering healthy relationships between peers and students and provides a delivery format with authentic forums to practice and develop social competency skills. Reviewers reported congruence between the level of program effort and the intensity of program outcomes expected. The rationale behind the program was also found by reviewers to be clear and well matched to the appropriate age levels of participants.

Evidence of Efficacy. The program presented two evaluation studies. The first study was a pre-post non-equivalent comparison group design that appropriately used analysis of variance and reported a time by treatment interaction for teacher reports of behavior and social skills. The intervention group included 68 fourth grade students from two school sites, and the comparison group included 86 fourth grade students from two different school sites matched on student and community variables. The second study was a post-test-only design comparing 191 sixth grade students who had participated in the program for two or more years to 86 sixth grade students who had participated in the program for one year or less. Reviewers agreed that the first study was strong and demonstrated statistically significant short-term effects. Although the second study demonstrated long-term results, reviewers did not consider this study methodologically sound because it failed to control for pre-treatment differences.

Reviewers determined that the program had been evaluated with an adequate design for demonstrating evidence of efficacy. Although no actual measures of behavior were used, the evaluation assessed a plausible risk/protective factor, social skills, which was specifically defined as cooperation, assertiveness, self-control, or empathy. The short-term study demonstrated statistically significant program effects on teachers' ratings of student social skills and problem behavior, and reviewers noted that the assessment tool had sufficient reliability to support the findings. The long-term study reported statistically significant program effects on girls' middle school adjustment from three report sources, i.e., students, teachers, and parents. Positive program effects for boys included higher levels of social skills and self-control and fewer problems with physical fighting.

For Further Information Contact:
The Stone Center, Wellesley Centers for Women, Wellesley College
106 Central St., Wellesley, MA 02481-8203
Telephone: (781) 283-3778 Fax: (781) 283-3717
E-mail: pseigle@wellesley.edu
Web site: http://www.wellesley.edu/OpenCircle

PeaceBuilders®

The PeaceBuilders® program is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. PeaceBuilders® is a school-wide violence prevention program for elementary and middle schools that aims to reinforce positive behavior throughout the entire community - at school, at home, in after school settings, in peer interactions, and in the mass media. The PeaceBuilders model is an explicit attempt to systematically provide a culture that models and reinforces pro-social behavior, reduces sources of adult attention to inappropriate behavior, and increases peer attention to displays of positive behaviors and competencies. For young children, the program endeavors to increase cooperation, collaboration, and teamwork while reducing acts of aggression and negative behaviors. The program's goal is for all schools to become peaceful learning environments where everyone learns, practices, and acquires the skills to ensure positive and respectful behaviors in order for students to achieve academic, personal, and interpersonal success.

PeaceBuilders uses nine broad behavior-change techniques: (1) common language for "community norms"; (2) story and live models for positive behavior; (3) environmental cues and feedback to signal desired behavior; (4) role plays to increase range of responses; (5) rehearsals of positive solutions after negative events and response cost as "punishment" for negative behavior; (6) group and individual rewards to strengthen positive behavior; (7) threat reduction to reduce reactivity; (8) self- and peer-monitoring for positive behavior; and (9) generalization promotion to increase maintenance of change across time, places, and people. PeaceBuilders is built on key research findings about the brain, including an understanding of the role of hormones and neurotransmitters and their relationship to positive social interactions and readiness to learn.

The materials and resources for the program include the following: a student workbook; a teacher "Action Guide"; a teacher "All in One Binder"; a reproducible binder of forms; a leadership guide; a staff manual; "The Intensive Guide" for more at-risk youth; parent education materials; reward materials; community outreach materials; and assessment and evaluation tools.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. Before the formal teacher-training workshop, faculty members receive a pre-intervention orientation to the program. The training workshop itself is four hours long. On-going technical assistance, study sessions, periodic forums, and occasional one-day institutes on specific topics are available. Train-the-trainers workshops are also available. Information is provided to administrators to help them evaluate the program. The cost of materials and resources for the program is approximately $11.85 per student. Program maintenance after the first year costs $100 per year. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. According to reviewers, PeaceBuilders has an effective, systematic approach to changing the culture of violence and demonstrates a holistic emphasis on the individual and the environment. Its goals are aligned with this approach and are both realistic and admirable. The five principles practiced by students (praise people, avoid put-downs, seek wise people as advisors and friends, notice and correct hurts we cause, and right wrongs) reflect the resiliency-based rationale and are highly relevant to violence prevention.

Evidence of Efficacy. Reviewers found that the PeaceBuilders' evaluation design was strong, although only a partial preliminary report of the results from a large randomized evaluation study was available at the time of the review. They noted that the evaluation design used well-known instruments with good reliability and validity and data analysis that adequately controlled for threats to internal validity, although no attrition data were provided. With several outcomes, the program reported overall trends in the data rather than statistical testing of differences between control and treatment groups or effect sizes, which made it difficult for reviewers to judge the level of significance for all reported outcomes.

The evaluation used a randomized nonequivalent control-group design with repeated measures. Eight schools from two school districts with high rates of juvenile arrests and histories of suspensions and expulsions were grouped into four matched pairs. Within the matched pairs, schools were randomly assigned to intervention schools (2,736 students in Grades K-5) or wait-list control schools (1,105 students in Grades K-5) schools. The study assessed aggressive and delinquent behavior, social competence, parent-child relationships, school discipline, and peace building behaviors and used outcome assessments such as student self-reports, teacher reports, playground observations, parent self-reports, and school and law enforcement records. Results over a two-year period demonstrated a statistically significant increase in student pro-social behavior in favor of the intervention group as measured by teacher reports of social competence; and a decline, although not to a statistically significant degree, in student aggressive behavior in favor of the intervention group as measured by teacher reports of social competence and student reports of peace building behavior.

The evaluation also examined data from school nurses' logs collected one year prior to and during the 1994-95 program intervention. Nurses' logs included data on student visits to the school nurse for all reasons, all injuries, and injuries caused by fights. Interviews with nurses found no differences in reporting and record keeping between the intervention and control schools. Results showed a statistically significant decrease in favor of the intervention schools in the weekly rates of student visits to the school nurse for all reasons and for injuries, and reviewers noted that all results were confirmed with analysis of covariance. The major change in the control schools was an increase in the rate of confirmed fighting episodes.

For Further Information Contact:
Telephone: (877) 4 PEACE-NOW or (520) 322-9977 Fax: (520) 322-9983
E-mail: mik@heartsprings.org
Web site: http://www.peacebuilders.com

The Peacemakers Program: Violence Prevention for Students in Grades 4-8

The Peacemakers Program: Violence Prevention for Students in Grades 4-8 is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. The Peacemakers Program: Violence Prevention for Students in Grades 4-8 is a school-based violence prevention intervention. Its goal is to reduce aggression and violence among participating youth. Aggressive behavior is reduced across a broad spectrum of severity, ranging from hurtful speech, to physical fighting, to use of weapons. The Peacemakers Program attempts to positively change violence-related attitudes and to train students in conflict-related psychosocial skills, including anger management, unbiased social perception, conflict avoidance, problem-solving, and assertiveness.

Peacemakers addresses two basic dimensions of aggression-related functioning: violence-related attitudes and, more predominantly, conflict-related psychosocial skills. Values, self-concept (not self-esteem), and violence-related attitudes are discussed. The bulk of the program consists of training in conflict-related psychosocial skills. The material of the program is organized around a model of violence as the end result of a sequential process, with different skills called for at different points in time.

The curriculum is based on a teacher-delivered series of 17 lessons. Each lesson takes about 45 minutes to conduct. Sessions are generally conducted once per week so that the program takes one semester to complete. The order of the sessions is important as they build on each other. Didactic presentation is mixed with discussion and activities. The emphasis is on application and practice of the material. Materials include a teacher's manual, student workbooks, stories, and parent materials. The program contains two optional features: a bibliography of resources and an appendix of classroom management strategies.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. Teachers receive approximately six to eight hours of training in the Peacemakers Program. Ongoing consultation is also available as needed. Program costs include manuals, workbooks, and training and are estimated to be approximately $11.00 per student. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. The reviewers rated this program high in quality for its clearly stated goals and their alignment to rationale. The rationale itself was found to be extremely well defined with cutting-edge theories of the inter-relationship between prevention and remediation in the context of violence prevention. Reviewers also found the content to be superior and logically designed in its presentation.

Evidence of Efficacy. The evaluation of the Peacemakers Program used a pre-post, comparison group design, with 71% of the sample receiving the program and 29% in the control group. Measurement instruments included a project-developed multiple choice test based on program content, the Attitudes toward Guns and Violence Questionnaire, and the Aggressive and Violent Behavior Questionnaire. Three violence-related constructs were assessed (knowledge of psychosocial skills, attitudes toward guns and violence, and aggressive behavior) through student self-report measures and behavioral observation scales completed by teachers. The evaluation demonstrated statistically significant results in favor of the treatment students in the areas of increases in student knowledge of conflict-related psychosocial skills, decreases in self-reported and teacher-reported student aggressive behaviors, and decreases in teacher-reported student aggression-related disciplinary incidents, use of school conflict mediation services, and suspensions for violent behavior.

Reviewers found the evaluation study of the program to be high quality with some strong elements. They cited the study's short-term outcomes as convincing evidence of the program's potential for changing aggressive behavior in students. Reviewers referred to the good face validity of the instruments and the fact that the instruments measured the dimensions purported. Interpretation of the results were within the limits of the data and unit-of-analysis. Although the attrition rate was high, reviewers found that the attrition did not seem to have a major effect on the sample composition in regard to aggressive behavior levels. In addition, data analyses took into account initial group differences and other constraints of working with human subjects that were reflected in the data set.

For Further Information Contact:
2525 East 22nd St., Cleveland, OH 44115
Telephone: (216) 696-5800, ext. 1144 Fax: (216) 696-6592
E-mail: jeremyshapiro@yahoo.com
Web site: http://www.applewoodcenters.org/peacemakers.htm

Peers Making Peace

Peers Making Peace is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. Peers Making Peace (PMP) is an innovative peer-mediation program that uses a preventive approach for handling conflicts both in and out of school. The program's goal is to improve school environments by reducing violence, assaults, discipline referrals, and increasing academic performance. This is accomplished by training teams of students to act as peer mediators on their school campuses.

Research has established that children have risk factors for substance abuse and for becoming victim to or perpetrators of violence. However, children also have resiliencies, which protect them and help them overcome risk factors. This program develops and enhances these resiliency assets.

The program is designed to impact students in pre-Kindergarten through 12(superscript: th) grade with research-based, age-appropriate, and developmentally sound curricula for each level. Each participating school selects a group of 15 to 24 students that represent the community's racial, ethnic, and gender demographics. Students learn skills such as conflict resolution, non-verbal communication, questioning, and maintaining neutrality. The training activities for students vary in length from 10 to 45 minutes. The maximum training time each day varies by age group: elementary students receive no more than three hours a day on three different occasions; middle school no more than four hours on three different occasions; and high school students no more than five hours on three different occasions. Selected students apply the skills they learn by serving as third party mediators to help those involved in conflict reach mutually satisfactory agreements. Most mediation takes place before or after school, during lunch, or during activity time. Students take responsibility for solving their own problems, which allows teachers to concentrate on teaching. A pre-training needs assessment with materials assists schools in preparing for program implementation.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. There are three different coordinator manuals that contain detailed instructions and guidelines to implement the program. Student workbooks for training are provided. Videos are also provided for orientations to both students and adults. Additionally, the developer provides ongoing technical assistance. Cost per student impacted by the program is approximately $1.64. Costs to maintain the program are minimal. The complete coordinator's manual for each level (elementary, middle, and secondary) costs $95.00. Student manuals are available for $1.00 each with a site license. Extension materials such as videos are also available. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. Inviting and encouraging the participation of the whole community while at the same time keeping the program peer-led is likely to achieve the program's desired goals.

Reviewers found the goals of this program to be succinct, clear, and measurable and noted that materials effectively align with the program's goals. Reviewers also found that this program does an excellent job of documenting its research-based rationale and the practices all reveal logical theoretical underpinnings. The program was noted for its cultural and ethnic sensitivity, the seemingly bias-free training, and the video's excellent representation of diverse populations which send a message of inclusion, according to reviewers.

Evidence of Efficacy. The evaluation of the Peers Making Peace program used a pre-post, quasi-experimental design with six experimental and six comparison schools that were regarded as similar based on demographics, socioeconomic levels, population, and incidence of violence and substance use. Results demonstrated that experimental schools experienced a drop of 73% in expulsions while comparison schools experienced an increase of 6.2%, a drop of 90.2% in assaults while comparison schools experienced an increase of 33%, and a drop of 57.7% in discipline referrals while the comparison schools experienced an increase of 8.4%. Results were uniformly positive in the experimental schools.

Reviewers agreed that the evaluation results were useful for assessing program potential. They noted that the treatment schools' reduction in violence was believable and impressive. Reviewers found that the program reported evidence of efficacy based on a methodologically sound evaluation, despite the lack of randomized assignment and a lack of clarity about sample selection and attrition issues. Reviewers determined that the evaluation used outcome measures that were from reliable sources and that the measures had face validity.

For Further Information Contact:
2095 N. Collins Blvd. Suite 101, Richardson, TX 75080
Telephone: (972) 671-9550 Fax: (972) 671-9549
E-mail: susan.armoni@pmuinc.com
Web site: http://www.pmuinc.com

Positive Action

Positive Action is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. Positive Action (PA) was first developed in 1977 and has been revised since that time based on process, monitoring, and outcome evaluations. It consists of integrated kindergarten through eighth grade classroom curricula, school preparation and teacher training, a school-wide climate-change program, a family program, and a community involvement program. Although a high school component is also offered, adequate high school evidence of efficacy was not available. The goals of PA are to improve individuals, families, schools, and communities by teaching that doing positive actions help them develop positive identities. Each goal has individual objectives which include decreasing drug, alcohol, and tobacco use, and decreasing incidents of violent behavior or misconduct.

Positive Action is grounded in a broad theory of self-concept that posits that people determine their self-concepts by what they do; that actions, more than thoughts or feelings, determine their self-concept; and that making positive behavioral choices results in feelings of self-worth.

Positive Action is a systematic, comprehensive program that uses active learning, positive classroom management, and a detailed curriculum. The Grades K-6 portion of the curriculum consists of over 1,200 fifteen to twenty-minute lessons delivered daily or almost daily. Activities include stories, role playing, modeling, games, questions/answers, and others. As a holistic program, PA incorporates life skills into its curriculum and includes most subject areas such as social studies, math, science, and others. The middle school curriculum continues with the same concepts as the elementary curriculum and focuses on middle-school students' independence and emerging recognition of their responsibilities for themselves. Lessons are taught two or three days a week.

Full implementation of PA in one school requires: one Teachers' Kit of the appropriate grade level for each teacher, one Drug-Education Supplement Teacher's Kit for fifth grade (a Middle School Drug-Education Supplement Teacher's Kits for middle school is also desirable), Teacher's Kits of the appropriate grade levels for special education, one Principal's Kit, one Counselor's Kit, and one Community Kit. The implementing school principal can also refer to the Implementation Plan. Also available is a Positive Action Family Kit.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. A three-hour orientation and implementation workshop is available through Positive Action, but schools may also purchase training and professional development materials and use their own trainers. Several other workshops are also available through PA: a two-hour workshop for school personnel on how they can raise awareness of PA; a seven-series workshop that explores program components in depth; and a seven-part workshop that teaches how to apply PA concepts in all curriculum areas. Trainers from PA cost $600 per day in addition to travel expenses and $300 per day for travel time. The maximum group size is 30 participants per trainer. Training and professional development workshop materials cost $360 each.

Materials required in the full implementation of PA vary according to school size (i.e., number of teachers, counselors, and families. Costs for materials are as follows: Kindergarten Teacher's Kit is $360 each; Grades 1-8 Teachers' Kits are $260 each; Fifth Grade Drug-Education Supplement Teacher's Kit costs $160 each; Middle School Drug-Education Supplement Teacher's Kit is $260 each; Elementary and Secondary Principals' Kits are $360 each; Family Kit is $54.95 each; Community Kit costs $360 each; Implementation Plan is $160 each; High School Teacher's Text is $59.95 each; High School Student's Text is $34.95 each; High School Activity Booklet is $4.00 each; and Counselor's Kit is $59.95 each. Cost for consumables in subsequent years are approximately 20% of first year costs. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. Reviewers found that Positive Action sets clear and appropriate goals for the intended population and setting and that it is reasonable to expect the program to achieve these comprehensive goals. Reviewers noted that the program cites a great deal of research and that the rationale is based on a strong theoretical foundation. The program activities were found to align with the goals and the rationale. Reviewers state that there is a high probability that if the activities are implemented with fidelity, then the program's depth and quality are likely to produce systemic changes in schools and communities.

Evidence of Efficacy. Reviewers found Positive Action's overall evaluation design and methodology to be adequate with appropriate data analyses. They concluded that the cumulative effects of several of the studies showing statistically significant distal outcomes on discipline problems and self-concept confirmed the efficacy of the program. However, they agreed that no single recent evaluation of the program involved a rigorous study with well-defined, reliable and valid measures, or adequate controls for threats to internal validity. Reviewers cited one methodologically sound study that showed an impact on the protective factor of self-concept associated with some of the behavioral outcome variables of interest. They underscored that the evaluation studies involved elementary and middle school students only.

Positive Action has been extensively researched and evaluated in diverse schools and sites. Evaluations have included quasi-experimental, matched comparison group, pre-post only case study, long-term follow-up, time series, and percentile ranking comparison designs. Measures included self-concept scales, standardized tests, and review of official school and police records. The program reported favorable outcomes for Positive Action students in the areas of substance use, violence, other crimes, truancy/absenteeism, academic achievement, and student self-concept. Reviewers determined that there was sufficient evidence of program effects primarily on self-concept and on some outcomes related to discipline problems.

For Further Information Contact:
264 Fourth Ave. South, Twin Falls, ID 83301
Telephone: (208) 733-1328 or (800) 345-2974 Fax: (208) 733-1590
E-mail: info@positiveaction.net or paction@micron.net.
Web site: http://www.positiveaction.net or http://www.posaction.com

Preparing for the Drug-Free Years (PDFY)

Preparing for the Drug-Free Years is recommended as a Promising Safe, Disciplined, and Drug-Free Schools program.

Program Description. Preparing for the Drug-Free Years (PDFY) is designed to assist parents in reducing risks in their families that could contribute to alcohol and drug abuse. The goals of the program are to empower parents of children ages 8 to 14 to reduce the risk that their children will develop problems with drugs and alcohol in adolescence and to enhance protective parent-child interactions.

PDFY is guided theoretically by the social development model integrating social control theory and social learning theory. Offered to parents in schools, churches, homes, hospitals, and other locations, this five-session, multi-media skills training program is designed to be delivered weekly in two-hour sessions to parents of school-age children.

Two volunteer workshop leaders lead the program. Through the PDFY program, parents learn what the family and individual risk factors are for substance abuse, how to set clear family expectations on drugs and alcohol, what skills their children need to resist peer influences to use drugs or alcohol or engage in antisocial behavior, how to manage family conflict, and how to strengthen family bonds.

The curriculum kit for the workshop leaders consists of two workshop leaders' guides, two videotapes, a complete set of transparencies and parent handouts, and one family guide that summarizes the curriculum and provides follow-up "homework" activities for the family. Aids for recruitment and retention of parents, such as flyers, certificates, and bumper stickers, are also available.

Professional Development Resources and Program Costs. Two volunteers attend a three-day intensive training workshop. The workshop covers all five sessions of the curriculum while incorporating behavioral skills training and communication-centered approaches. The cost for training up to 12 workshop leaders is $4,500.00 plus $100.00 per participant for the training materials. The developer also offers a train-the-trainer option for large scale implementation of the program. (Current costs need to be verified with the program.)

Program Quality. Reviewers noted that this program clearly articulates its goals and spells out its expected behavioral changes. In this way, its clear theoretical foundations are realized, report reviewers. Materials consistently support the stated goals; provide a clear rationale for participants; and effectively contribute to increasing the potential for active, meaningful participation by parents. Reviewers identified the cultural and ethnic sensitivity of PDFY as a strong attribute of the program. The program was lauded for directly addressing appropriate and inappropriate beliefs commonly held by parents and for incorporating a variety of activities that meet the needs of diverse learning styles and help to retain parents' interest.

Evidence of Efficacy. Reviewers concluded that PDFY was well-researched and provided complete information about the efficacy of the program. The program addressed risk and protective factors at the family level and made a positive impact on several of these factors. The findings of the four evaluation studies presented indicated that the program had statistically significant results in favor of the treatment group on measures pertaining to: a) general family interactions and child management skills, b) problem-solving, c) parent-child affective quality, d) general child management, e) intervention focused on parenting behaviors, and f) improved parent norms pertaining to alcohol use. Long-term follow-up results demonstrated that positive program effects had been maintained at least for one year after intervention.

The evaluation studies used a variety of experimental designs, including a pre-post test design with random assignment of identified families into treatment and non-treatment groups. Self-report and observational methods were used to collect data on risk and protective factors and studies were conducted to develop measurement models of latent parenting constructs. Reviewers noted that although there were some attrition issues, the differential effects of attrition were not statistically significant and efforts were made to statistically control for pre-test and other differences. The data analyses were appropriate, procedures were well-done, and interpretations were justified

For Further Information Contact:
130 Nickerson St., Suite 107, Seattle, WA 98109
Telephone: (800) 736-2630, ext. 162 Fax: (206) 736-2630
E-mail: moreinfo@drp.org
Web site: http://www.drp.org

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